Beyond the Veil- A History of Womens Head Coverings in Western Europe

One of the biggest news stories this summer regarding clothing, was the notorious ban on the ‘Burkini’ in France. This story made me feel fundamentally uncomfortable, having spent reasonable amounts of time in the Middle East, I have come away an even more ardent supporter of women’s right to wear whatever they choose than perhaps I was before I went. I’m not denying there are issues in many Islamic countries surrounding women’s rights, and these need to be addressed, but the decision a women is not allowed to dress as modestly as she may choose, simply because of her religion, is a ludicrous one, and one that sits very uncomfortably with me. Nevertheless, the issue has been discussed continuously over the past few months, and it is ultimately an active debate that doesn’t need my voice added to it. What I do hope to do in the next series of my posts however is examine the tradition of women’s head coverings in Europe. These posts are not intended to make any judgement either way regarding whether it is acceptable that women should or shouldn’t veil themselves, but instead examine traditions which were very prominent until the last century, as a reminder a woman’s choice to cover up may not be so alien to our culture as it is often portrayed.

Ancient Rome

For my first post, I have chosen to look at Ancient Roman traditions of wearing a veil. The Roman veil was quite different to whatever we might imagine when we hear the word, rather than covering the face the roman veil was more similar to a modern bridal veil, a piece of fabric fastened to a women’s head, covering her hair, which she would have been expected to wear on any social and public occasion.

The HBO TV Series Rome put a lot of thought into the historical accuracy of the clothing, including the veils worn by women.

Female Modesty

Unsurprisingly, the veil was tied to the modesty of the wearer. It is often easy to forget the frequency with which it was worn, as many surviving roman busts depict women without the veil, instead focusing on the elaborate hairstyle of the subject. This isn’t without cause, history of the Western Roman Empire covers a period of nearly 1,000 years, and traditions of dress changed significantly in this period. This included the veil, which was not always worn strictly, nevertheless, this does not negate the importance of women covering their head in Ancient Rome. In 166 BCE, Sulpicius Gallus reportedly divorced his wife for going out in public with her hair uncovered, claiming only he should see her head, and she had thus disgraced him. This anecdote is from the Roman Republic, but the ties of the veil to modestly continue to exist in the early empire. The Emperor Augustus consolidated his power by claiming to restore traditional values to the empire, instituting a series of laws surrounding public and private modesty. Augustus presented his own family as the pinnacle of Roman tradition, and consequently his family was often (but not exclusively) portrayed in the veil, highlighting their modesty. Later Empresses, notably Julia Domna, wife of the Emperor Septimius Severus (who reigned 198-211 CE) are shown with elaborate hairstyles, which are impossible to imitate in real life. One school of thought suggests women wore wigs, which fulfilled the same purpose as a veil, hiding their real hair in public, and thus offering a more elaborate way of displaying their modesty.

Veiled Women on the Ara Pacis in Rome

But What about the Men?

Interestingly, the veil was not exclusively worn by women. Though there was much less expectation on men to cover their head in public, when making a sacrifice men were expected to cover their head just the same as women were, and male priests covered their head. As a consequence of this, many emperors would portray themselves wearing a veil to demonstrate their piety to the gods, and dedication to the state cult. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE) depicts himself wearing a veil in a series of friezes currently on display in the Capitoline. Augustus also portrayed himself as veiled often, and on the Ara Pacis, a monument built by Augustus, both himself and his son in law Agrippa are shown with their heads covered, thus highlighting their civic and religious roles in the empire.

Marcus Aurelius Veiled when performing a public sacrifice

To Conclude…

This post barely scrapes on the vast social and political importance of the veil in the Roman Empire. With such a sprawling period, it is difficult to encapsulate every social change and its influence on dress. Nevertheless, I hope this acted as a brief introduction as to why men and women covered their hair in the Roman Empire, and in further posts I will be examining how the tradition continued in Western Europe with the arrival of Christianity.

Sources:

Meyers, R. 2012. ‘Female portraiture and female patronage in the high imperial period’. In James, S.L and Dillon, S. Blackwell Companion to Women in the Ancient World

Bonfante, L and Sebasta, J.L. (eds.) 2001. The World of Roman Costume

Fashion Glossary - The Tudors

For this series, I plan to look at some of the more intricate periods of fashion history, starting with the many layered clothing of the Tudor court.

When people discuss fashion in the Tudor period, they tend to only discuss the clothes worn by the richest members of society. Something that I too will be doing today. The clothing worn by the rich and powerful in Tudor times tended to be more complex and detailed that that of the poor and as such is the subject of today's post. This can be attributed to several reasons, such as the rich having servants to help them dress in extravagant layers of clothing and the money to buy ever more elaborate costumes.

For the women of the elite, getting dressed was something of an extensive ritual, with shoes, perhaps surprisingly, being one of the first items put on.

Chemise or Smock

This was the Tudor underwear, a thin, full-length garment that was made of linen. For the rich, the linen would have been of a purer white, and the collar and cuffs would have been edged with embroidery and/or frills. At the start of the Tudor period, the neckline was square, following the lines of the bodice, later smocks became high necked, with a frill edged standing collar, that would eventually become the ruff. Most people would have owned sufficient smocks to last them a week, as having fresh linen everyday was a matter of pride. The smock protected the outer garments from dirt transferred from the skin as the outer garments were beaten out as opposed to washed.

Example of a smock

Visible blackworked chemise from portrait of Mary I

Petticoat

In the early part of the Tudor period, a petticoat (or little coat) was a garment, similar to a waistcoat that was worn by both genders, underneath their outer garments, to provide warmth. However, by the 1550's the word petticoat had come to mean a women's underskirt, either with or without an attached bodice. Petticoats would be made of wool, the fineness of the wool corresponding to the wealth of the owner, and could be stiffened or padded to help give extra volume to skirts. Petticoats tended to be red, perhaps because the colour red was believed to have a warming effect on the body, or to bring good health.

 

Modern recreation of Tudor Petticoat

Servant in red petticoat c.1570

 

 Farthingale

This was a hooped underskirt primarily worn by the wealthy. It was typically stiffened with willow, but reeds, whalebone, fabric trim, or cord could also be used. Despite being hidden, farthingales were often made of more expensive fabrics such as satin or silk taffeta, and were often colourful, Queen Elizabeth having a purple and orange striped Spanish fathingale! There were three main types of fathingale:

Spanish farthingale

The Spanish Farthingale - This was worn to give skirts a triangular, or conical shape. It came to fashion in Spain in the latter part of the 15th Century, reaching England with the arrival of Catherine of Aragon, but didn't gain popularity until the 1540s.

French farthingale

The French Farthingale  - Also known as a bum roll or French wheel, the French farthingale was a stiffened roll of fabric worn around the hips. It gave the fabric a domed shape at the waist, before allowing it to fall in soft waves to the floor. It was popular in England during the late 1570s.

Great farthingale

The Great Farthingale - This evolved from the French farthingale (and in fact some consider them to be one and the same garment). This type of farthingale can also be referred to as the wheel or drum farthingale. The fabric of the over skirt was held out at right angles to the body, before falling to the floor, giving the skirt a drum shape. Often the back of the 'wheel' was higher the front, extending the wearers torso, whilst shortening her legs. This type of farthingale first appears in England the late 1580's and was popular during the 1590s.

Mary I in Spanish farthingale

Woman in a French farthingale

Woman in great farthingale

 Stays or Corset

The corset was first introduced during the Tudor period, in about the 1530s, and unlike its Victorian counterpart, was intened to given the torso a cylindrical shape. Previously, a similar effect had been achieved by stiffening the bodice of the kirtle. Similar to farthingales, corsets could be stiffened with willow or whale bone, but stiff fabric was also commonly used. However, Tudor corsets were not the health risk of their later counterparts, instead providing support and following more of the natural lines of the body.

Surviving Tudor corset

Replica Tudor corset

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Partlet

The partlet was a yoke, generally with a flared collar, that was worn at a gowns neckline. Initially worn as an outer garment, by the Elizabethan period, the partlet was worn as an undergarment. These were made of lawn, a type of fine linen or another lightweight fabric, but could also be made to match the rest of the gown. Similarly, partlet's were traditionally black or white, but could also be colourful to match gowns. For the rich, partlets would be decorated, such as with embroidery or edging. In Elizabethan times partlets also provided anchors and protection for ruffs.

Catherine of Aragon in a blackworked partlet

Replica partlet

 

Stomacher

The stomacher was a triangular front panel that was worn over the front opening of a gown or bodice and in many cases was used to keep it closed. Stomachers of the rich tended to be highly decorated using embroidery or jewels. They could be made from the same material as the gown, or as a contrast to it and as such came in a huge variety of colours and fabrics. Stomachers first appeared during the Tudor period in England, becoming a key part of the Tudor wardrobe in about the 1580s with the popularity of the French farthingale, although they did not fade when that farthingale did.

Elaborate Tudor stomacher

Tudor lady with elaborate stomacher

 

Kirtle

The kirtle was the penultimate layer of  tudor dress. It consisted of an attached skirt and bodice. In the earlier part of the Tudor era, the bodice of the kirtle was stiffened, either using buckram or boning, to create the appropriate silhouette, however by the 1530s stays had begun to he used for this purpose.  Before 1540, the skirt of the kirtle may also incorporate a train. The front section of the kirtle's skirt would be highly decorated as it could be seen, and is often referred to as a forepart, however the back of the skirt would be likely made from a cheaper material.

Jane Seymour in a grey kirtle

A replica elaborately patterned kirtle

Gown

The final layer to a Tudor outfit was the gown. The gown would be seen in its entirety and as such was made from suitably expensive materials according to the wearers wealth and rank. Materials used included velvets, damasks or even Cloth of Gold. Gowns were typically square necked dresses, often with attached sleeves. Most gowns fastened at the front, with the front on the skirt being split to display the elaborate forepart beneath.

Replica brown gown

Elizabeth I in red gown

 

Sleeves

On many occasions, gowns would have detachable sleeves. This allowed an increased variety in outfits as gowns could be worn with different combinations of sleeves, kirtles and later stomachers. Sleeves amongst the nobility were often big. In the early part of the Tudor period, 'hanging sleeves' were popular, but by the Elizabethan era 'leg of mutton sleeves were preferred, first made popular by Anne of Cleeves.

Katherine Parr in hanging sleeves

Elizabeth I in 'leg of mutton' sleeves

Ruff

Beginning as a frilled standing collar on a smock, the ruff soon developed into the iconic neck ware of the Elizabethan Era. Ruffs were a starched and pleated frill that circled the neck, and could be held up to the ears, or lie over the shoulders. The introduction of starch allowed ruffs to far outstrip their humble origins. Early ruffs, in the 1560s, were three inches wide and two inches deep, but soon they got bigger, some more than a foot wide, and had to be supported by wire frames and vast quantities of pins.
Ruffs were worn at all levels of society. For the rich common fabrics used included lace (for the most expensive) , or very fine linens such as Holland, Lawn and Camerick. Ruffs could also be decorated with lace, gold and silver thread and fine silk. Despite dying out as a fashionable accessory in the 17th century, ruffs are still worn by Danish clergy.

Early Elizabethan ruff

Lace ruff worn by Lady Catherine Killigrew 1595

Eleanor 

 

For more information:

Tudor Costume and Fashion by Herbert Norris 

The Tudor Tailor: Reconstructing 16th-century Dress by Ninya Mikhaila, Jane Malcolm-Davies

http://www.sixwives.info/tudor-ruff.htm
http://www.theanneboleynfiles.com/resources/tudor-life/tudor-clothes/#ixzz4JIE4Wceh
http://www.sixwives.info/tudor-dress.htm
http://olivialongueville.com/something-about-tudor-costume/
http://www.worldofshakespeare.com/strictly-shakespeare/history-of-tudor-ruff/
https://thepragmaticcostumer.wordpress.com/2013/05/07/an-appetite-for-fashion-decadence-a-brief-history-of-stomachers/
http://www.sixwives.info/tudor-underwear.htm
http://www.tudortalkandcatwalk.com/a-pretty-partlet/
http://www.renaissancetailor.com/demos_partlets.htm
http://onthetudortrail.com/Blog/2013/12/09/what-did-a-noble-tudor-lady-wear/
https://historyofeuropeanfashion.wordpress.com/tag/elizabethan-fashion/
http://www.historyonthenet.com/Tudors/tudor_costume.htm

Images:

http://opattern.info/pattern-chemise/
http://simbelmyne.us/tudor/pages/chemise.htm
http://www.cardinal-creations.com/projects/tudor-lady
http://www.elizabethancostume.net/petticoat.html
https://quizlet.com/82670888/history-of-fashion-flash-cards/
https://uk.pinterest.com/pin/139400550942164153/
http://pixgood.com/farthingale.html
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O54683/queen-mary-i-of-england-oil-painting-mor-antonis/
http://www.kateemersonhistoricals.com/TudorWomenU-V.htm
http://jeannedepompadour.blogspot.co.uk/2012/06/english-portraits-1570-1630-george.html
http://www.elizabethancostume.net/corsets/history.html
https://lucycorsetry.com/research-corset-brands/guided-galleries/pairs-of-bodies-effigies-stays/
http://tudortimes.co.uk/daily-life/tudor-dress
http://www.thistlebees.com/basefile/partlet.htm
https://thepragmaticcostumer.wordpress.com/2013/05/07/an-appetite-for-fashion-decadence-a-brief-history-of-stomachers/
http://www.artnet.com/artists/british-school-16/portrait-of-a-lady-aged-42in-a-black-dress-with-3jSc17FGChKKc8YLC0pJpw2
http://olivialongueville.com/something-about-tudor-costume/
http://www.theanneboleynfiles.com/resources/tudor-life/tudor-clothes/
http://www.yourdressmaker.com/shop/en/tudor-dress-no-22-gold-35
http://hoocher.com/Portraits_of_Elizabeth_I_of_England/Portraiture_of_Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm
http://onthetudortrail.com/Blog/2013/12/09/what-did-a-noble-tudor-lady-wear/
http://www.gogmsite.net/the_late_farthingale_era_fr/minialbum_queen_elizabeth_o/ca_1575_darnley_portrait_by.html
www.shakespearesengland.co.uk/2010/01/12/a-brief-history-of-the-ruff/
http://www.gogmsite.net/the_late_farthingale_era_fr/ca-1595-1600-catherine-kill.html

Historical beauty tricks that actually work

Olive Oil

Nowadays we’re used to adverts and beauty bloggers telling us we should be using more and more products on our skin and hair, all of which seem to do the same thing, and most of which are expensive. The ancient Greeks, however, had a different idea: olive oil. Applied to hair and left for a few hours it can act as a conditioner, and massaged into skin it can have many benefits too.

Why does it work?

Olive oil can be beneficial for skin for several reasons, the first of which is that it contains important vitamins, such as Vitamin K and Vitamin E. Vitamin E has antioxidant functions, and is soluble in fat, meaning that it can be absorbed into skin cells and prevent them from oxidative damage. Vitamin K, when ingested in foods such as kale and spinach, can help to prevent wrinkles, but it has been shown that applications of Vitamin K to skin areas can prevent acne, and reduce acne scarring.

Another reason why olive oil can be good for the skin is that is has antibacterial properties. Researchers have found that certain chemical groups (called phenolic compounds) are in abundance in olive oil, and these compounds can have antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects. These effects could be useful in preventing or treating spots.

Third, olive oil has emollient properties. Emollients are a chemical group (for example, oleic acid, which can be used as an emollient, is found in olive oil) which help to treat skin damage, and also promote moisture retention. These properties make it a good conditioning treatment for hair as well, as emollients are absorbed into the hair fibres, making it smoother and softer. According to some sources, it can even promote hair growth by reducing the sebum that builds up around hair follicles.

How to use it:

There are lots of different ways to apply olive oil as a beauty treatment, so here is my method:

1      Put about a tablespoon (or more/less depending on how long/thick your hair is) of extra virgin olive oil into a small container (I used a plastic shot glass, so something similar to that will do).

2     Boil some water, then pour about a centimetre depth into a larger container (e.g. a standard mug).

3   Stand the oil container in the hot water, and leave for a couple of minutes. It will heat up quickly.

4   Take the oil out carefully, and massage it into your hair (it will be warm, but not hot enough to burn or be uncomfortable).

5   Leave the oil on your hair for at least half an hour. The Greeks did this for several hours, but if you’re too busy for that, an hour is fine.

6   (This is where sources start to differ on what to do) At this point, you can either wash out the oil with shampoo and conditioner as you normally would, or just use water. I tried it just with water, and my hair was very greasy afterwards, but a lot of sources recommend not using shampoo, so I found a middle ground. I use shampoo on my roots, but not the lengths of my hair, as the lengths are where my hair tends to become dry. Then, I condition all of it, and rinse as usual.

You can decide whether to blow-dry or let your hair dry naturally, but either way, doing this makes my hair much softer (especially at the ends) than the usual shampoo/conditioner routine.

Skin-wise, I was a little nervous about using olive oil as my skin tends to be oily rather than dry, especially on my nose and chin, so I decided to add another ingredient: tea tree oil. This is a natural antiseptic, and is useful in treating spots and acne, but it can dry skin out, so I assumed that the olive oil would counteract this. Using another plastic shot glass, I mix about half a teaspoon of olive oil with 2-4 drops of tea tree oil – this doesn’t sound like a lot, but you really don’t need much to cover your face. Massage this into your face (and neck, if you like), and leave for about half an hour, then wash/moisturise as normal. Without wishing to sound like a clickbait article, this really will make your skin feel much softer and cleaner (Dermatologists are mystified by this student’s secret to perfect skin – you’ll never guess what!).

This all goes to show that, even though historical beauticians didn’t always get it right (I mean, lead makeup was never going to end well, was it?), sometimes they hit on really good ideas which we can still use today.   

Some more reading about olive oil:

http://www.livestrong.com/article/87040-benefits-olive-oil-hair/

http://blog.perriconemd.com/what-are-emollients/

https://www.healthambition.com/vitamin-k-benefits-best-sources/

http://www.oliveoilsource.com/page/beauty-and-olive-oil

http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-health-news/olive-oil-and-infection/51057

Colourful Clothing- The Use of Green

This is set to be my final post on the use of colour in clothing, though as I have enjoyed the research for these posts so much- I suspect it won’t be long before I revisit the topic. This week, I am looking at green- a colour I found surprisingly difficult to research, as unlike white and purple, very few people have expressly studied green clothing.

Problems researching green clothing start in Antiquity. The Egyptians associated the colour with fertility, possibly as it was the colour of plants growing alongside the Nile, and some goddesses are depicted wearing green. Nevertheless, it was certainly less popular, and less symbolic, than white or blue. There is also a distinct lack of green clothing in Ancient Greek writings,  namely because the Ancient Greeks did not have a word that clearly translates as green, often associating the colour with shades of blue, black or yellow. This trend continues into Ancient Rome. White and Red were the official colours worn by citizens, though it is worn noting that the Latins at least had a word which referred to the colour! When we do hear about green clothes in Rome, it tends to be a negative context. Green dyes often came to Rome from the East, and was therefore associated with extravagance. The infamous Emperor Nero is recorded as wearing green too often, and in Natural History Pliny the Elder is critical of those who wear the colour.

Late Egyptian Wall Art Depicting a Goddess in Green

Despite the negative connotations of green in the Roman Empire, the colour became quite popular in the early medieval era. Green dyes, along with grey and brown ones, were often cheap, and it was a colour generally worn by the lower classes. Nevertheless, jewel bright greens do appear in Late Antique and medieval art representing the wealthy. At Ravenna, a medieval mosaic depicts one of the three Magi visiting Christ in a green cloak. Perhaps the most important innovation in green clothing in this era was the ruling of Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) regarding clerical clothing. Pope Innocent followed a theory of colour initially promoted by Aristotle, where green was a ‘middle-colour’ between dark and light. Therefore, it was adopted as a ‘middle—colour’ of priest’s robes, the first time green was ever officially included in a cleric’s wardrobe. Pope Innocent said it should be worn for any festival where the more traditional colours of red and white were not already being used. Therefore green robes became one of the more common types of religious Garment in the late medieval period.

The Three Magi at Ravenna, one of whom wears a Green Cloak

It is also possible to trace green in renaissance clothing. At the end of the 15^th Century, Isabella and Beatrice D’Este, two aristocratic sisters in Italy, dressed their maids in green for May celebrations. The colour was still worn by all social classes. One Noblemen from 1480 is recorded as offering his maids one green, and one brown dress as part of their dowries. Perhaps an even stronger testament to equality of the colours use, is that while purple and gold are both listed in the Elizabethan sumptuary laws, green is not, indicating that it could be worn by any social class.

There is also plenty of evidence for the use of green in Clothing in the 18^th and 19^th Centuries. The V&A contains many examples of expensive male and female clothing in bright emerald green, or with a green print. Furthermore, the Ladies Home Magazine from 1857 lists several different examples of Green bonnets, ribbons and other forms of clothing. However, again green was worn by people regardless of social class. In 1867, the author James Greenwood described the colourful hats worn by labourers on the railways, and perhaps unsurprisingly at this point, green was one of them.

Male and Female Clothing from the V&A, both of which Feature Green!

Green is certainly not my favourite colour, so I was unsure what to expect when I started researching it, or if I would even find it that interesting. As I said at the start of this post- I found it difficult to research. The colour has been used so often, and is so common, few people write about it. However, I think this is what I find interesting about green. Unlike other colours, it’s simple and ‘middling’ nature, means it has been worn by almost everyone for the last 1500 years.

-Rachael

Pastoureau, M. 2014. Green: The History of a Colour

Condra, J. 2008. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing Through World History, Vol. 2

Perrot, P. 1994. Fashioning the Bourgeoisie: A History of Clothing in the 19^th Century

Gage, J. 1999. Colour and Culture: Practice and Meaning from Antiquity to Abstraction

Ladies Home Magazine. 1857. Vol 10.

Richmond, V. 2013. Clothing the Poor in 19^th Century England. 

1920's - Everyday Coats and Scarves

Unfortunately for me, the delightful English weather all too often means that it is too cold or too wet too cold to go out in just a dress. Thankfully for the women of the 1920s, there were options to keep them all toasty and dry, whatever the weather.

Scarves

1920s Winter  Scarf

1920s Belted Knitted Scarf

 As the weather turned colder, women could seek to warm up their typical everyday outfit with the inclusion of a scarf, which in the 1920s became both practical and fashionable. Triangular knitted scarves, made of soft fabrics such as cotton or Alpaca wool were popular, and chunkier knitted scarves could also be worn. As the decade wore on patterned silk scarves gained in popularity, regardless of the season. These patterns followed the trends of the 1920s, such as floral, abstract, Asian and Art Deco prints and tended to be hand painted. 

1920s Silk Scarves

Scarves tended to be worn in several ways:

·         Wrapped around the neck

·         With one side slung over a shoulder

·         Hanging down straight, in which case they were often secured with a belt

·         Tied into a bow

1920s Wrapped Scarf

Coats and Jackets

1920s Coats

 

However, scarves alone were not enough to keep warm and coats were an essential part of any wardrobe. In summer, coats or jackets were made of lighter variations of materials such as tweed and wool. Initially summer coats were worn open, but loosely belted at the waist belted at the waist, displaying the outfit beneath. This was later replaced by the cocoon wrap style of coat, which is defined by its loose fit and voluminous sleeves, and tended to be fastened to one side. Both styles helped to emphasise the dropped waist fashion of the day and help accentuate the boyish silhouette that was the fashion.

1920s Coats

 

1920s Coat

Winter coats, whilst still fashionable, were also designed to keep the wearer warm. These coats tended towards more simple designs,typically being made of one block colour and following the straight up and down look. Typically, the hemlines of coats would mirror that of the garments underneath, as would the positioning of the belt, if one was included. Belts were rarely included for their intended function, instead providing decoration and breaking up the severe lines of the coat. Coats tended to be fastened asymmetrically, with buttons on the right hand side of the body.

Popular colours tended to be dark, or at least not eye catching, such as black, brown, and tan as well as darker greens, blues and reds.  The main body of the coat was made from fabrics such as wool suede velour, deep pile velvet, wool broadcloth, and velour coating, with lining made from softer materials such as crepe de chine, satin de chine, or other silks.

 The main decoration came at the collar and cuffs, which were finished in fur (or faux fur depending on your budget). If even faux fur was beyond your budget, collars and cuffs were turned back to display the lining to give a colourful contrast.

 Embroidery was also used as decoration, perhaps on the back of the coat, or on side panels that ran down the legs, although it was generally subtle and intended to not distract from the fur cuffs and collar. The side panels could be enlivened in other ways, such as by the use of pleating, which had the added benefit of aiding mobility.

1920s Coats, with side pleats

1920s Fur Coat

The 1920s saw the rise of fur coats, with furs such as mink, possum, racoon, seal, and sable to name but a few being prized. Cheaper furs, included weasel, rabbit and squirrel. Often these furs would be dyed to closer resemble their more expensive counterparts. Faux fur was also an option, with fabrics such as Siberian fur cloth being created. Unsurprisingly, fur coats were very costly, so the majority of women stuck to fur cuffs and collars. 

1920s 'It' Girl Louise Brooks

Raincoats were another matter altogether in that they prioritised function over fashion. In the 1920s, raincoats tended to be made from oilskin or rubber coated cotton or similar fabrics, in order to keep the wearer dry. They also, tended towards bright colours, perhaps to increase the visibility of the wearer to motorists. There were two main distinct styles of raincoat; the first is the rain cape, preferred by older women, which is similar to the modern rain poncho, whilst the other is the trench coat, first worn by men, which gained popularity amongst women in the 1920s. Neither style came equipped with a hood, so some form of waterproof hat would also be required.

1920s Raincoats

Overall, there are several key recurring themes in 1920s fashion. Primarily, an emphasis on simplicity and ease of production, that allowed all levels of society to appear up to date on the latest fashions. Another theme is the co-opting of traditionally male styles or garments, by women's fashion, even in something as simple as a raincoat.

1927 Autumn Coat Collection

Eleanor 

Images:

http://headtotoefashionart.com/2013/classic-coats-1920s-autumnwinter/ 

http://www.fraserknitwear.com/influences-on-fair-isle-knitwear-design-in-the-1920s-and-1930s

https://meylah.com/VintagePatternsDazespast/vintage-knitting-crochet-patterns-1920s-sweaters-scarves-hats-crocheted-lace-parasols-columbia-book-of-yarns

https://uk.pinterest.com/pin/286682332505609051/

http://vintagedancer.com/1920s/1920s-shawls/

https://afinecollection.wordpress.com/2013/12/11/fur-coat-mid-late-1920s/

http://zedisred.blogspot.co.uk/2011/02/original-it-girl-of-1920s-allure-of.html

https://uk.pinterest.com/pin/485544403549699576/

Colourful Clothing- The use of White

My last post, which detailed how purple was used in clothing throughout the ages, ended with me discussing on whether to talk about blue or red this week. In the end- I have decided to scratch that idea and talk about white instead. Perhaps the most obvious association we have with white in western culture is bridal wear, but this wasn’t always the case. This post will briefly chronicle the role white has played in clothing in the last 3,000 years.

As usual I will start my post talking about the Egyptians. I touched briefly on white in Egyptian clothing before- the colour was associated with purity, and is often worn by the deceased in scenes of the afterlife. Gods are also often shown in white- perhaps most famously Osiris (God of the Underworld) wears white mummy wrappings in most representations!

A Scene from the Book of the Dead where an Egyptian meets Osiris (and both wear white!)

White was worn in other ancient societies beside Egypt, and had particular importance in Rome. In the Republic, the Romans prided themselves on the ‘equality’ of their society, and the plain white toga (known as the Toga Candida) was worn by any man running for public office. Its lack of adornments was intended to put the focus on the wearers personal attributes, rather than wealth. This plain toga was the de facto uniform of a Roman gentleman, and was also worn by grooms to their wedding. White was only partially associated with brides in ancient Rome, with women wearing both white and yellow for the ceremony.

Feudalism in the medieval era noted a shift from the equaliser of white to a greater emphasis of purple and gold amongst the elite. Nevertheless, white was sometimes still worn by the wealthy to make an important social statement. Margaret Tudor, sister to Henry VIII, wore white during her marriage to James IV of Scotland. At this point, white was always worn by brides, so for Margaret, the colour was a social statement, emphasising her purity and youthfulness (she was only 13!).

White enjoyed popularity amongst the wealthy again in the 17^th and 18^th centuries. As religious sentiment in Northern Europe gradually shifted to Protestantism, simpler clothing was adopted, instead of the extravagant colours which were previously worn at court. Judges in England and the Netherlands both adopted white collars and by the early 1800s white was clearly a favourite of the elite. In Mansfield Park, written in 1806, Edmund Bertram instructs the heroine ‘A woman can never to be too fine when she is all in white’.

A Regency woman in white!

The Victorian era is what finally solidified white as the colour of brides. After Queen Victoria wore white to her wedding in 1840, the colour became increasingly popular, which was reflected in contemporary women’s journals, with the 1870 Godey’s Ladies book listing it as the perfect colour for a bride.

Queen Victoria in her (rather fabulous) wedding dress

Knowing nothing about any clothing from the last century, I am going to end the post here. I will be back in a few weeks writing about another colour, when I decided what it is.

-Rachael

Bibliography:

Snodgrass, M.E. World Clothing and Fashion: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Social Influence 

http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/intro/whites.html

Netheron, R and Owen-Crocker, G.R. Medieval Clothing and Textiles 10.