Beyond the Veil- A History of Womens Head Coverings in Western Europe

One of the biggest news stories this summer regarding clothing, was the notorious ban on the ‘Burkini’ in France. This story made me feel fundamentally uncomfortable, having spent reasonable amounts of time in the Middle East, I have come away an even more ardent supporter of women’s right to wear whatever they choose than perhaps I was before I went. I’m not denying there are issues in many Islamic countries surrounding women’s rights, and these need to be addressed, but the decision a women is not allowed to dress as modestly as she may choose, simply because of her religion, is a ludicrous one, and one that sits very uncomfortably with me. Nevertheless, the issue has been discussed continuously over the past few months, and it is ultimately an active debate that doesn’t need my voice added to it. What I do hope to do in the next series of my posts however is examine the tradition of women’s head coverings in Europe. These posts are not intended to make any judgement either way regarding whether it is acceptable that women should or shouldn’t veil themselves, but instead examine traditions which were very prominent until the last century, as a reminder a woman’s choice to cover up may not be so alien to our culture as it is often portrayed.

Ancient Rome

For my first post, I have chosen to look at Ancient Roman traditions of wearing a veil. The Roman veil was quite different to whatever we might imagine when we hear the word, rather than covering the face the roman veil was more similar to a modern bridal veil, a piece of fabric fastened to a women’s head, covering her hair, which she would have been expected to wear on any social and public occasion.

The HBO TV Series Rome put a lot of thought into the historical accuracy of the clothing, including the veils worn by women.

Female Modesty

Unsurprisingly, the veil was tied to the modesty of the wearer. It is often easy to forget the frequency with which it was worn, as many surviving roman busts depict women without the veil, instead focusing on the elaborate hairstyle of the subject. This isn’t without cause, history of the Western Roman Empire covers a period of nearly 1,000 years, and traditions of dress changed significantly in this period. This included the veil, which was not always worn strictly, nevertheless, this does not negate the importance of women covering their head in Ancient Rome. In 166 BCE, Sulpicius Gallus reportedly divorced his wife for going out in public with her hair uncovered, claiming only he should see her head, and she had thus disgraced him. This anecdote is from the Roman Republic, but the ties of the veil to modestly continue to exist in the early empire. The Emperor Augustus consolidated his power by claiming to restore traditional values to the empire, instituting a series of laws surrounding public and private modesty. Augustus presented his own family as the pinnacle of Roman tradition, and consequently his family was often (but not exclusively) portrayed in the veil, highlighting their modesty. Later Empresses, notably Julia Domna, wife of the Emperor Septimius Severus (who reigned 198-211 CE) are shown with elaborate hairstyles, which are impossible to imitate in real life. One school of thought suggests women wore wigs, which fulfilled the same purpose as a veil, hiding their real hair in public, and thus offering a more elaborate way of displaying their modesty.

Veiled Women on the Ara Pacis in Rome

But What about the Men?

Interestingly, the veil was not exclusively worn by women. Though there was much less expectation on men to cover their head in public, when making a sacrifice men were expected to cover their head just the same as women were, and male priests covered their head. As a consequence of this, many emperors would portray themselves wearing a veil to demonstrate their piety to the gods, and dedication to the state cult. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE) depicts himself wearing a veil in a series of friezes currently on display in the Capitoline. Augustus also portrayed himself as veiled often, and on the Ara Pacis, a monument built by Augustus, both himself and his son in law Agrippa are shown with their heads covered, thus highlighting their civic and religious roles in the empire.

Marcus Aurelius Veiled when performing a public sacrifice

To Conclude…

This post barely scrapes on the vast social and political importance of the veil in the Roman Empire. With such a sprawling period, it is difficult to encapsulate every social change and its influence on dress. Nevertheless, I hope this acted as a brief introduction as to why men and women covered their hair in the Roman Empire, and in further posts I will be examining how the tradition continued in Western Europe with the arrival of Christianity.

Sources:

Meyers, R. 2012. ‘Female portraiture and female patronage in the high imperial period’. In James, S.L and Dillon, S. Blackwell Companion to Women in the Ancient World

Bonfante, L and Sebasta, J.L. (eds.) 2001. The World of Roman Costume

1920's - Everyday Coats and Scarves

Unfortunately for me, the delightful English weather all too often means that it is too cold or too wet too cold to go out in just a dress. Thankfully for the women of the 1920s, there were options to keep them all toasty and dry, whatever the weather.

Scarves

1920s Winter  Scarf

1920s Belted Knitted Scarf

 As the weather turned colder, women could seek to warm up their typical everyday outfit with the inclusion of a scarf, which in the 1920s became both practical and fashionable. Triangular knitted scarves, made of soft fabrics such as cotton or Alpaca wool were popular, and chunkier knitted scarves could also be worn. As the decade wore on patterned silk scarves gained in popularity, regardless of the season. These patterns followed the trends of the 1920s, such as floral, abstract, Asian and Art Deco prints and tended to be hand painted. 

1920s Silk Scarves

Scarves tended to be worn in several ways:

·         Wrapped around the neck

·         With one side slung over a shoulder

·         Hanging down straight, in which case they were often secured with a belt

·         Tied into a bow

1920s Wrapped Scarf

Coats and Jackets

1920s Coats

 

However, scarves alone were not enough to keep warm and coats were an essential part of any wardrobe. In summer, coats or jackets were made of lighter variations of materials such as tweed and wool. Initially summer coats were worn open, but loosely belted at the waist belted at the waist, displaying the outfit beneath. This was later replaced by the cocoon wrap style of coat, which is defined by its loose fit and voluminous sleeves, and tended to be fastened to one side. Both styles helped to emphasise the dropped waist fashion of the day and help accentuate the boyish silhouette that was the fashion.

1920s Coats

 

1920s Coat

Winter coats, whilst still fashionable, were also designed to keep the wearer warm. These coats tended towards more simple designs,typically being made of one block colour and following the straight up and down look. Typically, the hemlines of coats would mirror that of the garments underneath, as would the positioning of the belt, if one was included. Belts were rarely included for their intended function, instead providing decoration and breaking up the severe lines of the coat. Coats tended to be fastened asymmetrically, with buttons on the right hand side of the body.

Popular colours tended to be dark, or at least not eye catching, such as black, brown, and tan as well as darker greens, blues and reds.  The main body of the coat was made from fabrics such as wool suede velour, deep pile velvet, wool broadcloth, and velour coating, with lining made from softer materials such as crepe de chine, satin de chine, or other silks.

 The main decoration came at the collar and cuffs, which were finished in fur (or faux fur depending on your budget). If even faux fur was beyond your budget, collars and cuffs were turned back to display the lining to give a colourful contrast.

 Embroidery was also used as decoration, perhaps on the back of the coat, or on side panels that ran down the legs, although it was generally subtle and intended to not distract from the fur cuffs and collar. The side panels could be enlivened in other ways, such as by the use of pleating, which had the added benefit of aiding mobility.

1920s Coats, with side pleats

1920s Fur Coat

The 1920s saw the rise of fur coats, with furs such as mink, possum, racoon, seal, and sable to name but a few being prized. Cheaper furs, included weasel, rabbit and squirrel. Often these furs would be dyed to closer resemble their more expensive counterparts. Faux fur was also an option, with fabrics such as Siberian fur cloth being created. Unsurprisingly, fur coats were very costly, so the majority of women stuck to fur cuffs and collars. 

1920s 'It' Girl Louise Brooks

Raincoats were another matter altogether in that they prioritised function over fashion. In the 1920s, raincoats tended to be made from oilskin or rubber coated cotton or similar fabrics, in order to keep the wearer dry. They also, tended towards bright colours, perhaps to increase the visibility of the wearer to motorists. There were two main distinct styles of raincoat; the first is the rain cape, preferred by older women, which is similar to the modern rain poncho, whilst the other is the trench coat, first worn by men, which gained popularity amongst women in the 1920s. Neither style came equipped with a hood, so some form of waterproof hat would also be required.

1920s Raincoats

Overall, there are several key recurring themes in 1920s fashion. Primarily, an emphasis on simplicity and ease of production, that allowed all levels of society to appear up to date on the latest fashions. Another theme is the co-opting of traditionally male styles or garments, by women's fashion, even in something as simple as a raincoat.

1927 Autumn Coat Collection

Eleanor 

Images:

http://headtotoefashionart.com/2013/classic-coats-1920s-autumnwinter/ 

http://www.fraserknitwear.com/influences-on-fair-isle-knitwear-design-in-the-1920s-and-1930s

https://meylah.com/VintagePatternsDazespast/vintage-knitting-crochet-patterns-1920s-sweaters-scarves-hats-crocheted-lace-parasols-columbia-book-of-yarns

https://uk.pinterest.com/pin/286682332505609051/

http://vintagedancer.com/1920s/1920s-shawls/

https://afinecollection.wordpress.com/2013/12/11/fur-coat-mid-late-1920s/

http://zedisred.blogspot.co.uk/2011/02/original-it-girl-of-1920s-allure-of.html

https://uk.pinterest.com/pin/485544403549699576/

Colourful Clothing- The use of White

My last post, which detailed how purple was used in clothing throughout the ages, ended with me discussing on whether to talk about blue or red this week. In the end- I have decided to scratch that idea and talk about white instead. Perhaps the most obvious association we have with white in western culture is bridal wear, but this wasn’t always the case. This post will briefly chronicle the role white has played in clothing in the last 3,000 years.

As usual I will start my post talking about the Egyptians. I touched briefly on white in Egyptian clothing before- the colour was associated with purity, and is often worn by the deceased in scenes of the afterlife. Gods are also often shown in white- perhaps most famously Osiris (God of the Underworld) wears white mummy wrappings in most representations!

A Scene from the Book of the Dead where an Egyptian meets Osiris (and both wear white!)

White was worn in other ancient societies beside Egypt, and had particular importance in Rome. In the Republic, the Romans prided themselves on the ‘equality’ of their society, and the plain white toga (known as the Toga Candida) was worn by any man running for public office. Its lack of adornments was intended to put the focus on the wearers personal attributes, rather than wealth. This plain toga was the de facto uniform of a Roman gentleman, and was also worn by grooms to their wedding. White was only partially associated with brides in ancient Rome, with women wearing both white and yellow for the ceremony.

Feudalism in the medieval era noted a shift from the equaliser of white to a greater emphasis of purple and gold amongst the elite. Nevertheless, white was sometimes still worn by the wealthy to make an important social statement. Margaret Tudor, sister to Henry VIII, wore white during her marriage to James IV of Scotland. At this point, white was always worn by brides, so for Margaret, the colour was a social statement, emphasising her purity and youthfulness (she was only 13!).

White enjoyed popularity amongst the wealthy again in the 17^th and 18^th centuries. As religious sentiment in Northern Europe gradually shifted to Protestantism, simpler clothing was adopted, instead of the extravagant colours which were previously worn at court. Judges in England and the Netherlands both adopted white collars and by the early 1800s white was clearly a favourite of the elite. In Mansfield Park, written in 1806, Edmund Bertram instructs the heroine ‘A woman can never to be too fine when she is all in white’.

A Regency woman in white!

The Victorian era is what finally solidified white as the colour of brides. After Queen Victoria wore white to her wedding in 1840, the colour became increasingly popular, which was reflected in contemporary women’s journals, with the 1870 Godey’s Ladies book listing it as the perfect colour for a bride.

Queen Victoria in her (rather fabulous) wedding dress

Knowing nothing about any clothing from the last century, I am going to end the post here. I will be back in a few weeks writing about another colour, when I decided what it is.

-Rachael

Bibliography:

Snodgrass, M.E. World Clothing and Fashion: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Social Influence 

http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/intro/whites.html

Netheron, R and Owen-Crocker, G.R. Medieval Clothing and Textiles 10.

1920's - Day Dress Tutorial

For this post, I am going to do a tutorial for how to make a 1920s day dress.

Note: this will not be a 1920s, flapper, bright young thing dress, but the kind of dress that women would wear every day, such as to work or to visit friends. 

I am no sewing expert, although  I have made a couple of items of my own clothes before, so I will do my best to describe my method in a way that can easily be recreated. 

The advantage of 1920s dresses is that they are a relatively simple style of dress to create, and can easily be made by upcycling old clothes. Overall, the most important parts of a 1920s dress are the dropped waist and lack of fitting to the bodice.

For more information about 1920s day dresses, please see my earlier post:

http://thatssolastcentury.blogspot.co.uk/2016/05/1920s-day-dresses-overview.html

The easiest way to make this style of dress requires:

A simple, preferably plain top with little to no fitting

A skirt in a matching or complementary colour. Ideally this skirt would not be too flared and be about knee length. Pleats were popular throughout the decade so I decided to go for a pleated skirt

A strip of fabric that will form the waist line. This should complement the colours of the top and skirt.

Ideally the same fabric should be used for all three sections but that is not always possible, for example my fabric strip is made of a lighter cotton. This can make the attaching of the pieces harder.

In terms of pattern, block colours were common, as were simple geometric, floral and art deco patterns so depending on the level of accuracy you want try to stick to these. I decided to go for a plain top and skirt as this was easier to find, with a complementary patterned strip to provide contrast.

Colourwise, darker colours would have been more common for work, such as in shops or industry. However, paler colours were also popular, especially for visiting and other instances where there was little risk of getting dirt on your clothes. My colour choice was limited by what I could find in charity shops.

First cut your fabric strip to the correct size. Remember when measuring to include a seam allowance of around 1 inch or 2cm. I made mine 10cm high (not including seam allowance), and measured around the bottom hem of my chosen top to give me the required length. Do not measure around your hips for the strip of fabric as the straight up and down nature of the dress means that this would make it too tight.

Next, try on the top. The aim is for the strip of fabric to sit on your hips, emphasising the dropped waist effect. Find the point on the top, below which you want the fabric strip to sit.

Remember to leave a seam allowance of about half an inch or 2cm.

For me I found it best to line the bottom of the fabric strip up with the bottom of the top

Note: if the fabric you are using for the strip is particularly fine, or lace, it may need to overlap your top for its entire height.

Pin the top and strip together, with a seam allowance for both, remembering to pin with the two 'right' sides facing each other. Do the same for the skirt and strip, again with a seam allowance and 'right' sides together.

Try on the whole dress before sewing and check that the strip and hemlines are where you want them to be. If not, the height of the fabric strip can be changed. It may also be necessary to hem the skirt, or cut off the waist band to make it fit the top of the dress properly.

Once you are happy , sew the three pieces together.

Depending upon the edges of your fabric it may also be a good idea to do some zigzag stitches to prevent fraying

 

You should now have a completed 1920s style day dress:

I am wearing my dress with some black cuban heels and skin colour tights. I decided to wear white gloves and a grey cloche as it was still convention for women to wear hats and gloves when out in the 1920s. My grey cloche is a personal favourite of mine and was a large part of why I got into 1920s fashion and I did choose the colours for this dress so that they could be worn together. I am also wearing a long, dark green cardigan with bishop sleeves that would also pass for 1920s style, the belt can be used to accentuate the dropped waist of the dress. Although short, my hair is too long for true 1920s bobbed hair, but will pass. Otherwise, it could be worn back in a bun, or curled to make it shorter. In terms of make-up, I am only wearing foundation. For the majority of women, only face powder was worn everyday in the 1920s.

There will be some inaccuracies, obviously by buying the base clothes from a charity shop it is unlikely that what you will find will perfectly recreate 1920s styles with 100% accuracy. However, I think that I managed to get fairly close.

 

Eleanor

Colourful Clothing- The Use of Purple

When I do my washing, I have noticed rather than split my clothes into lights and darks like most people, I split it into purples and non-purples. Purple is one of my favourite colours, however had I been born a few centuries earlier, I would never have been allowed to wear the colour. For millennia, purple was only accessible to the exceedingly wealthly. This post is the first in a series of colour in clothing, and will provide a whistle stop tour of how purple has been used throughout history.

Some of the aarliest references to the colour purple used in clothing are from Mesopotamia. The Assyrian King Ashurnirsirpal II lists getting ‘red-purple wool’ in his tribute from neighbouring kingdoms. This red-purple dye came from the coast of the Mediterranean, and was harvested from a type of sea snail native to the levantine coast, particularly Tyre, giving it it's name 'Tyrian Purple'. It took 9,000 snails to produce just one gram of dye, and so the colour purple was incredibly expensive. It was only really affordable to the very wealthy or royalty, which is the beginnings of its association with royalty even today. At this point, the colour purple and red are hard to distinguish, due to the similarlities in the dye colours. The Spartans would wear red-purple cloaks, to intimidate their enemies, as the cost of Laconia (the region of Greece Sparta is in) also had the sea snails, and wearing expensive red cloaks was seen as a display of wealth and power to their enemies.

Not that I am saying the film 300 was accurate, but at least they wore red cloaks

In the Roman empire, the colour purple was still associated with royalty in clothing. In Rome itself, only the emperor was allowed to wear a robe in purple, though senators tunics had a purple border. Purple worn by the royal family in Rome continued for hundreds of years, the Emperor Justinian is depicted in Tyrian purple nearly a century after the fall of the Roman empire. In Rome's successor, the Byzantine empire, purple became symnonmous with the royal family, with Princes and Princesses born in the Blachernae palace receiving the title 'Porphryogennetos' meaning ‘born in the purple’

The fall of Rome did disrupt the transportation of purple dye throughout Europe. After the 600s, when the Arabians conquered the Levantine coast, Constantinople became the last center of Tyrian purple production in Europe, meaning it only became more expensive and prized. There were alternatives, by mixing wode and red dye a purple could be produced for clothing, and some Sacndinvian lichen was also used to create a similar colour. Tyrian purple was by far the preferred dye however, as it did not fade, but grew brighter in the sun. When Constantinople was conquered in 1453, Europe was cut off from the dye, only increasing its value when it could be bought.

The Early Byzantine Emperor Justinian in a purple cloak

The association between purple clothing and wealth is particularly highlighted by the Elizabethan sumptuary laws. Elizabeth I banned purple to be worn by anyone except the royal family themselves, in an attempt to codify the rules governing social class. The British monarchy also adopted purple as a mourning colour, Elizabeth herself owning a purple dress lined with ermine to be worn when in mourning. Purple was much more striking than the traditional black, and so further separated the monarchy from the populace. In 1660, Samuel Pepys recorded seeing the seeing ‘the king in purple mourning’ after the death of his brother.

Tudor King Henry VIII in red-purple clothing, from circa 1520.

Over the next few centuries, it did become more acceptable for the masses to wear purple, though price was still an issue. Perhaps mimicking the monarchy, purple was adopted as a colour of half-mourning, to be worn after black but before the grieving party returned to full colour clothing. One ladies magazine from 1837 lists ‘black for mourning and purple for half mourning’ as the correct colours to wear. The greatest innovation which introduced purple to the wider market was the discovery of a synthetic purple dye by William Henry Perkin in 1856. Perkin had been attempting to create a cure for malaria, but accidentally discovered the purple dye. No longer having to rely on expensive natural dyes has resulted in the colour being used far more frequently in clothing throughout Europe.

An 1874 portrait named 'Lady in Violet' by the Hungarian Artist Pal Syzinei Merse

So that is my brief history of the colour purple. It doesn't necessarily include every scenario it was used it (particularly for cultures outside Europe) but I hope it was enough for a brief overview. I will be back in a few weeks- though I haven't decided on a new colour yet- red or blue?

-Rachael. 

Sources:
Taylor, L. Mourning Dress: A Social and Cultural History
Glick, T. Livesy, S.J and Wallis, F. (eds.) Medieval Science, Technology and Medicine: An Encyclopedia
Condra, J. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing Through World History: Prehistory to 1500 CE

http://www.livescience.com/33324-purple-royal-color.html

http://elizabethan.org/sumptuary/who-wears-what.html

Netherton, R. Medieval Clothing and Textiles.Vol.11
Ladies Home Magazine Vol. 9 (1837)
Woodward, J. The Theatre of Death: The Ritual Management of Royal Funerals in Renaissance England 1570-1625