Colourful Clothing- The use of White

My last post, which detailed how purple was used in clothing throughout the ages, ended with me discussing on whether to talk about blue or red this week. In the end- I have decided to scratch that idea and talk about white instead. Perhaps the most obvious association we have with white in western culture is bridal wear, but this wasn’t always the case. This post will briefly chronicle the role white has played in clothing in the last 3,000 years.

As usual I will start my post talking about the Egyptians. I touched briefly on white in Egyptian clothing before- the colour was associated with purity, and is often worn by the deceased in scenes of the afterlife. Gods are also often shown in white- perhaps most famously Osiris (God of the Underworld) wears white mummy wrappings in most representations!

A Scene from the Book of the Dead where an Egyptian meets Osiris (and both wear white!)

White was worn in other ancient societies beside Egypt, and had particular importance in Rome. In the Republic, the Romans prided themselves on the ‘equality’ of their society, and the plain white toga (known as the Toga Candida) was worn by any man running for public office. Its lack of adornments was intended to put the focus on the wearers personal attributes, rather than wealth. This plain toga was the de facto uniform of a Roman gentleman, and was also worn by grooms to their wedding. White was only partially associated with brides in ancient Rome, with women wearing both white and yellow for the ceremony.

Feudalism in the medieval era noted a shift from the equaliser of white to a greater emphasis of purple and gold amongst the elite. Nevertheless, white was sometimes still worn by the wealthy to make an important social statement. Margaret Tudor, sister to Henry VIII, wore white during her marriage to James IV of Scotland. At this point, white was always worn by brides, so for Margaret, the colour was a social statement, emphasising her purity and youthfulness (she was only 13!).

White enjoyed popularity amongst the wealthy again in the 17^th and 18^th centuries. As religious sentiment in Northern Europe gradually shifted to Protestantism, simpler clothing was adopted, instead of the extravagant colours which were previously worn at court. Judges in England and the Netherlands both adopted white collars and by the early 1800s white was clearly a favourite of the elite. In Mansfield Park, written in 1806, Edmund Bertram instructs the heroine ‘A woman can never to be too fine when she is all in white’.

A Regency woman in white!

The Victorian era is what finally solidified white as the colour of brides. After Queen Victoria wore white to her wedding in 1840, the colour became increasingly popular, which was reflected in contemporary women’s journals, with the 1870 Godey’s Ladies book listing it as the perfect colour for a bride.

Queen Victoria in her (rather fabulous) wedding dress

Knowing nothing about any clothing from the last century, I am going to end the post here. I will be back in a few weeks writing about another colour, when I decided what it is.

-Rachael

Bibliography:

Snodgrass, M.E. World Clothing and Fashion: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Social Influence 

http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/intro/whites.html

Netheron, R and Owen-Crocker, G.R. Medieval Clothing and Textiles 10.

Fashions of Egypt- Hairy Pharoahs

This is my third (and final) post in the Egyptian fashions series. I finally get the chance to focus on something I have wanted to from the beginning- how the Egyptians wore their hair. Throughout history, how people have worn their hair has included clues to their gender, wealth and social class, something no less true for the ancient Egyptians. Alex wrote an absolutely fantastic post on wigs a few weeks ago, so this post will focus instead on how Egyptians dealt with their natural hair, and some of the seemingly strange practices involved in it.

Ancient Egypt was rife with disease, as the Nile floods only encouraged the spread of water-borne illness such as schistosomiasis and malaria. As such, grooming was incredibly important, as keeping clean was vital to a long life. Long hair, and beards, was sometimes seen as unclean, as it encouraged head lice and was a breeding ground for other diseases. This is where we reach the first hurdle in studying hair, as to prevent the spread of illness many Egyptians, and particularly men, shaved their head.

An Egyptian man with a shaved head

The first hairstyle any Egyptian wore, regardless of social class or gender, was a shaved head with a braided sidelock, or very occasionally in the New Kingdom several braids. This sidelock had a mythological importance, it was the hairstyle worn by the god Horus as a child, a form he was often represented in. It was due to the mythological significance of the sidelock that we also see it worn by various religious figures, notably ‘sem-priests’ who helped ensure the safe passage of the dead to the afterlife.

The Pharaoh Akhenaten, his wife Nefertiti and their daughters

Evidence from mummies suggests wealthy women did sometimes wear their hair long, augmented by accessories made of ivory or gold. Unlike men, women were rarely depicted as bald, save as children or during the Amarna period. The positioning of some mummies suggests occasionally women wore their hair long beneath their wigs, and when they didn’t wear a wig at all may have styled their hair extravagantly to look like they were.

Egyptian women sporting a variety of different hairstyles

Men would wear their hair short, either closely cropped or completely shaven. The poor, servants and slaves are often depicted without any hair at all, a symbol of their low status. Short hair was also donned by elite men however, to make their wigs easier to wear. Men also shaved their beards, only allowing it to grow as a sign of mourning, and likely shaving again shortly after the funeral. The ‘false beard’, a plaited and curled accessory which jutted from the chin, was worn by the Pharaoh as early as 3,000 BCE however, and continued to be worn until the late period (664-332 BCE) by the Pharaoh and other elite citizens. Actual beards seem to have become more popular by Greek and Roman Egypt, where they appear on mummy portraits.

King Tutankhamun sporting a false beard

So that is it for my series on Egyptian fashions! I hope it proved interesting, and somewhat informative in places. I know I enjoyed to write it at least! Especially this last post, which I had the pleasure to write and research in Rome, which it absolutely glorious. I am still mulling over what I want my next series of posts to be- however whatever I decide on I hope proves to be as fun to write as this series has been!

Sources:

Robins G. Hair and the Construction of Identity in Ancient Egypt, c. 1480-1350 B.C

Robins G. Women in Ancient Egypt

Tyldesley J. Daughters of Isis: Women of Ancient Egypt

Image Sources:

http://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/egypt/egcl06e.shtml

http://portsmouthpoint.blogspot.it/2013/03/ides-of-march-lecture-ancient-egypt.html

http://me13in.tumblr.com/post/83802148271/pseudofailure-yowhosedogisthat

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/01/21/king-tuts-mask-damaged_n_6520910.html

Fashions of Egypt: Accessorize like an Egyptian

My last post dealt with the styles and fabrics of Egyptian clothing, so this time I have decided to focus on jewellery, examining the gems, metals and styles the Egyptians found fashionable.

Gold was used extensively in Egyptian Jewellery. Mines in the Eastern desert made the metal (relatively) cheap and accessible, and the Pharaoh would organise mining missions personally. However, gold was often just the setting for elaborate jewelled beads. Lapis Lazuli, which came from Afghanistan, was particularly popular, as the colour blue was associated with heaven and rebirth in Egyptian myth and lore. Red carnelian also appears to have been common, and could also be mined in the Eastern desert. Some of our earliest examples of Jewellery from around 3000 BCE also feature Turquoise, which came from Sinai.

Lapis Lazuli, Turquoise and Carnelian Necklace from the British Museum

One of the most common styles of necklace was the Wesekh collar, which sprung into popularity in the eighteenth dynasty. This was a type of beaded necklace worn by both men and women, formed of many layers small and cylindrical beads (I have attached a section on how to make a collar at the end of this post). Amulets were the other main form of necklace, and were designed to grant magical protection to the wearer. These were actually worn by the dead more often than the living. Lapis Lazuli or carnelian would be shaped into a divine symbol (for example the djed pillar of Osiris, or the more famous eye of Horus) to protect the body in the perilous journey through the afterlife.

Wesekh Collar from the 11th Dynasty, at the British Museum

Djed Pillar Amulet at the British Museum

Tomb art also suggests the Egyptians wore earrings and arm bands. The tomb of Nebamun depicts women wearing large, flat, disc earrings, apparently made from pure gold. Bracelets and arm bands seem to have been tight and decorated with blue beads. The Egyptians also wore finger rings, fashioned out of any of their favorite stones, and decorated with protective hieroglyphs or divine symbols.

Women in Collars, Earrings and Bracelets at the Tomb of Nebamun

This post took a lot longer to write than intended (though I won’t pretend procrastination didn’t play some part in that). Next time, I plan to write about Egyptian hairstyles, both wigs and natural hair. For any further reading on this topic I would highly recommend www.ancientegyptonline.com which is both accurate, and fun to read.

-Rachael

Sources:

www.ancientegyptonline.com

Robins, G. 2008. The Art of Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, MA.

Harris, E.L. 1998. Ancient Egyptian Divination and Magic. Boston, MA and York Beach, ME.

Ogden, J. 1992. Ancient Jewellery. London.

Making a Wesekh collar:

1.       First, get a length of string or wire that will fit comfortably around your collarbone, and meet at the top of your spine. Then begin to add beads. Blues, yellows and reds are the most accurate colours, but feel free to experiment with whatever you think looks best for a more modern twist.

2.       Every two or three beads along, tie another piece of short string or wire to your first piece. Continue doing this until the entire thing is filled

3.       Put a few more beads on the short pieces of string or wire, but don’t cover them completely as you will need enough room at the end to tie a knot.

4.       If you stop here, you have made a normal Egyptian necklace! However if you want to make a full collar, then begin to tie a new length of string, slightly longer than your first, to the shorter pieces. Make sure to check this will also meet on your back. Add beads as you go along, and it should look something like this.

5.       Do this as often as you want, until you are happy with number of layers in your collar. Then tie the ends together, and you have the collar!

Getting Wiggy With It: Pre-Alexandrian Egypt

Throughout history hair and dress have been used to distinguish gender and social status, and this was no different in pre-Alexandrian Egypt. The use of wigs as a replacement for one’s natural hair served both practical and decorative purposes, and could be indicative of one’s social background and economic position. Such wigs were worn by both men and women but were less common for children. Wigs could be used to hide signs of ageing, and were associated with cleanliness due to being easy to clean and preventing lice. It became fashionable amongst the elite to wear black wigs on top of or as a replacement for natural hair, with red and brown hair becoming more associated with members of the lower classes who may be unable to afford their own wigs. Those who could afford them would wear wigs made from human or animal hair, while those of less affluent means could use wool or even palm fibre. Wigs were often perfumed with the most expensive fashions including built in perfume containers made from wax. These would melt and slowly release the myrrh within. For men, beards were not commonly worn, being sacred to Pharaohs who are known to have worn false beards.

Limestone Relief of Maat featuring a
Tripartite Wig from Dynasty XVII.
Florence Museum of Archaeology 20/02/16.

There have been several surviving wigs discovered which can be compared with the appearance of figures in contemporary artwork. These demonstrate a variety of styles. One of the most common of these styles appears to be the tripartite wigs which consisted of three parts: one at the back and one over either shoulder. These wigs appear to commonly consist of dreadlocks at the top, with longer curls or braids underneath. Other fashions included dreadlocks, curls, or braids of a uniform length which covered the shoulders. For the elite, wigs often included gold and lapis lazuli beads which could be braided into hair.

A Layered Wig from Dynasty XVIII
discovered in a Tomb in Thebes.
British Museum 20/02/16.

The basis of these wigs was a mesh which fitted around the head, These could be made from palm fibre or wool although hair was preferred due to the elasticity it provided. Strands of hair were woven together into thicker strands and attached to the delicate mesh. This was done by winding the strands around the mesh and pressing it into a substance consisting of bees wax and resin. This anchored the hair to the mesh and added volume to the wig. This waxy substance could be used to add curls to the hair and likely contributed to the preservation of such wigs. 

To create your own:

I would recommend the use of a wig rather than your own hair as these fashions would be permanent and may not be suitable for all hair types.

Materials:

Some of the materials used in traditional wig making may be difficult to acquire so here are some cheaper alternatives you could use.

Adorned Wig from Dynasty XII
discovered in El-Lahun.
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
20/02/16.

• If you intend to make your own wig, the easiest base would be a mesh cap of the colour you wish your wig to be. These can be acquired cheaply and are usually highly elastic meaning that they will fit well over most hair.
• For the actual hair you could use fine string or hair extensions. If you are using hair extensions and wish to use curls or dreadlocks it may be more effective to avoid plastic extensions.
• In place of the wax and resin solution hair or nail glue is suitable for sealing the hair to the mesh. Ensure that the glue is completely dry before wearing the wig so that it does not stick.

Making the Wig:

1. Separate the hair into small sections which will fit through the holes in the mesh. 
2. It's best to turn the mesh inside out when attaching the hair. For ease of access, I would recommend starting near the centre of the mesh. Pull the sections of hair through the mesh one at a time. Fold them at the end and push this through the next section of the mesh so that the hair is folded around a strand of the mesh. 
3. Wrap the folded section around the longer strands of hair so that the mesh is within a sort of lasso. Add the glue to where the two parts of hair meet and leave to dry.
4. Repeat this with the rest of the hair until the wig is full. Ensure that the glue is dry before continuing.

To Style:

When altering the length of the wig it is best to have someone model the wig. This will enable you to see more easily what the length will look like when worn.

1. To create a layered wig. Separate the hair so that the hair above the level of the ears is apart from the rest. Separate the remaining hair - the lower section - into three sections: the back, and the sides, which should fall naturally over the shoulders. Ensure that these three sections are of a uniform length. Mark the length of this section with some tape before tying it back so that it is not in the way.
2. Now focus on the upper layer of hair. When cutting this remember that styling it will reduce it's length. Leave an inch or two to accommodate for this, you can always trim it later if you're slightly off. Separate the hair so that falls naturally into three sections as with the longer section. Ensure when cutting that the length is uniform. This should be several inches shorter than the lower section but no shorter than shoulder length when styled.
3. When styling, the upper section of the wig can be curled or made into dreadlocks, while the lower section can consist of dreadlocks, curls, or braids.

1. To create a uniform wig. Separate the hair into three sections: the back and two sides, where the sides fall naturally over the shoulder. Cut to a uniform length, but remember that styling will shorten it so you should leave an additional inch or two. 
2. When styling, the wig can consist of dreadlocks, curls, or braids.

Wig with Headpiece from Dynasty XVIII
discovered in the tomb of the three
lesser brides of Thutmose III.
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
20/02/16.

1. When braiding. Braids should be thin, although most types of braid will work. To add some colour to your wig you can add beads to the braids. To achieve a traditional effect, gold and pale blue beads should be used. Wider flat - almost button like - pieces with metal colouring can be used for additional decoration.

1. When creating dreadlocks. Separate the hair into sections. Remember that these will shrink so create them slightly larger than you would want them to be when the wig is completed.
2. One by one, back comb these sections and twist them so that they are tight.
3. Steam the dreads. You can do this with a steamer or by dipping the dreads into boiling water and drying them with hot air from a blow dryer. The latter section may be more suitable if you are creating a layered wig as this should not affect the rest of the wig. Ensure that the dreadlocks remain twisted as you do this and that the ends of the dreadlocks are sealed.
4. This section of the wig may seem a bit thin so you can create additional dreadlocks with spare hair and attach them to the wig to add volume. It's best to do this in lower sections where possible so that the point where they attach to the mesh is less obvious.

1. When curling. The easiest way to curl hair is with hair curlers or straighteners. If the curls go lax in between uses, simply re-curl the affected areas.

Have fun trying it out yourself and if you want to read more about the subject, here's some extra reading:

Bronwyn + Cosgrave. The Complete history of costume and fashion: from ancient Egypt to the present day. 2001.

Cox, J, S. The Construction of an Ancient Egyptian Wig (c. 1400BC) in the British Museum. 1977.

Laver, J. Fashion: From Ancient Egypt to the present day. 1965.

Lowery, A. Historical Wig Styling: Ancient Egypt to the 1830s. 2013.

Robins, G. Hair and the Construction of Identity in Ancient Egypt c. 1480-1350BC. 1999.

Fashions of Egypt: Making the Kilt Cool before the Scottish did

Everyone is familiar with the stereotypical ancient Egyptian. Their wonderful lack of detail in art has resulted in an image of a ‘funny guy walking sideways’ in popular consciousness. This (arguably) simplistic style has its drawbacks- when attempting to reconstruct the clothing worn by the Egyptians, it becomes incredibly difficult.

The Ancient Egyptians: Incapable of Looking Forwards

With every society, you can tell a lot about someone’s social status by the clothes they wear. This was no less true for Egypt, where the small elite could dress in fabrics of their choice, while the poor may have worn loincloths, and slaves may have worn nothing at all. Nevertheless, most clothing for all members of society appears to have been made from only one or two pieces of fabric, knotted together as the wearer desired.

Women are often depicted in tightfitting white dresses, known as a kalasaris. This simple garment was the typical dress for any Egyptian woman, usually a tunic held up by one or two pieces of fabric. Realistically, these dresses would not have been as tight as they appear on tomb and temple walls. The Egyptians had a fantastic sense of simplicity when approaching their art, believing it didn’t have to appear realistic, so long as there was a good amount of symbolism behind it. Thus, to paraphrase one lecturer I have had, of course women were depicted in tight dresses, or if you couldn’t see their breasts, how would you know they were women?

Some Women, in the tight Kalasaris

Men could wear tunics as well, but fabulously preceding the Scottish in fashion sense, also wore kilts. The stiff triangular appearance of the kilt in most art makes it hard to imagine what it may have looked like when worn. By the New Kingdom (c.1500-1000 BCE) some more defined imagery suggests it likely had more material and layers, but again, the Egyptians drew what they liked rather than what they saw, and thus we are left with wall paintings of men in very pointy skirts.

Honestly- Who wore it better?

Almost all our remaining depictions of Egyptian clothes suggests they were white, though this by no means assures us white was the only colour the Egyptians wore. It was certainly an important colour, and perhaps the most common, but black, representing the mud in the fertile Nile valley, was also worn. Red was perhaps less common, due to associations with Seth (the god of destruction and chaos). The tomb of Nebamun, a New Kingdom official, has some wonderfully vibrant images, depicting women in luxurious golden cloth, which certainly suggests there was some variation on white, at least in elite dress.

Beautiful Golden Clothing in the Tomb of Nebamun

I don’t want to dive into hair at the moment- I feel it is a broad topic which fully deserves its own post or series of posts (though I will shamelessly plug another blog I write for, whichhas an interesting section on Egyptian Beards). Jewellery, and particularly magic amulets, is another topic I would like to explore in more depth than is afforded in one post. Therefore I will end here for now, and hopefully talk more about accessories and hair styles when I have had a chance to do more research!

-Rachael

Image References
https://hermionesknapsack.wordpress.com/tag/egyptian/
https://uk.pinterest.com/malatk23/the-ancient-middle-east-chapter-2/
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nebamun_tomb_fresco_dancers_and_musicians.png
http://nationalclothing.org/16-nationalclothing/europe/scotland/9-national-dress-of-scotland-men-s-and-ladies-kilt.html
https://uk.pinterest.com/karmenradjenovi/egypt/

Bibliography:
Condra, J. (ed.) 2008. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing through World History, Volume 1. Westport, CN and London
Nicholson, P.T and Shaw, I. (eds.) 2000. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge.
Tierney, T. 1999. Egyptian Fashions. Mineola, NY.